Civil Aviation Authority

Apart from the extreme example of manned space missions, air travel is probably the most heavily monitored and regulated mode of transport on earth. Although statistics show that most people suffer serious and fatal injury as a result of motoring accidents, this is because at any one time, there are far, far more people on the roads than there are in the middle of an airplane journey.

Safety in aviation unsurprisingly attracts much more attention because the dangers are more obvious and, when something does go wrong, the effects can be disastrous and headline grabbing especially if an accident occurs over a heavily built up area.

It goes without saying therefore that those involved at the sharp end like airline pilots and air traffic controllers have to go through stringent selection procedures to make sure that they have the right temperament for the job well before they even start technical training.

Sadly for them but sensibly for the rest of us, it's largely a case of many being called but only a few being chosen. Yet, like an army on operations, the frontline troops who make it through the selection process have huge back-up behind the scenes.

In the UK, most of this back-up is provided by the CAA, the Civil Aviation Authority and passengers using air travel are effectively in their hands from the minute they arrive at the airport to the minute they leave it after their return. This almost comprehensive responsibility is not purely concerned with the airworthiness of aircraft and their crew. The organisation also runs the ATOL scheme which ensures that passengers can get home in the event of an airline suffering financial collapse.

The effort that goes into maximising passenger safety is based on the cumulative experience and knowledge gained from the circumstances causing past accidents.The result is that only 130 air accidents were recorded worldwide in 2010 compared with 200 in 2001when there were significantly less flights made and passengers carried.

Here in the UK, the CAA is widely regarded as one of the best regulators in the world and it is frequently consulted by its younger counterparts overseas. Over the years it has built up a rigorous roster of checks involving the medical condition of pilots and flight engineers, the qualifications of aircrew, air traffic controllers and maintenance engineers and the state of the country's airports.

It looks into everything from the flight simulators used to train pilots, potentially dangerous goods carried as luggage or freight and what it likes to call " Human Factors". These include things like pilots being affected by stress and fatigue or unruly behaviour by passengers.

Away from large-scale commercial aviation, the CAA is also responsible for such esoteric areas as flying displays, civilian parachuting, hot air balloons and airships.

Apart from the extreme example of manned space missions, air travel is probably the most heavily monitored and regulated mode of transport on earth. Although statistics show that most people suffer serious and fatal injury as a result of motoring accidents, this is because at any one time, there are far, far more people on the roads than there are in the middle of an airplane journey.

Safety in aviation unsurprisingly attracts much more attention because the dangers are more obvious and, when something does go wrong, the effects can be disastrous and headline grabbing especially if an accident occurs over a heavily built up area. It goes without saying therefore that those involved at the sharp end like airline pilots and air traffic controllers have to go through stringent selection procedures to make sure that they have the right temperament for the job well before they even start technical training.

Sadly for them but sensibly for the rest of us, it's largely a case of many being called but only a few being chosen. Yet, like an army on operations, the frontline troops who make it through the selection process have huge back-up behind the scenes.

In the UK, most of this back-up is provided by the CAA, the Civil Aviation Authority and passengers using air travel are effectively in their hands from the minute they arrive at the airport to the minute they leave it after their return. This almost comprehensive responsibility is not purely concerned with the airworthiness of aircraft and their crew. The organization also runs the ATOL scheme which ensures that passengers can get home in the event of an airline suffering financial collapse.

The effort that goes into maximizing passenger safety is based on the cumulative experience and knowledge gained from the circumstances causing past accidents.The result is that only 130 air accidents were recorded worldwide in 2010 compared with 200 in 2001when there were significantly less flights made and passengers carried.

Here in the UK, the CAA is widely regarded as one of the best regulators in the world and it is frequently consulted by its younger counterparts overseas. Over the years it has built up a rigorous roster of checks involving the medical condition of pilots and flight engineers, the qualifications of aircrew, air traffic controllers and maintenance engineers and the state of the country's airports.

It looks into everything from the flight simulators used to train pilots, potentially dangerous goods carried as luggage or freight and what it likes to call " Human Factors". These include things like pilots being affected by stress and fatigue or unruly behavior by passengers.

Away from large-scale commercial aviation, the CAA is also responsible for such esoteric areas as flying displays, civilian parachuting, hot air balloons and airships.

They started employment at all ages, from all backgrounds and in many different areas. They are Legal Advisers, Press Officers, Consumer Affairs Officers, Air Traffic Services Inspectors. And these are only just a few of the vital roles at the CAA, the UK's world class air transport regulator.

Many people are passionately interested in aviation and travel but, sadly, only a proportion can be employed as aircrew. That is why the Civil Aviation Authority is such a popular destination for those seeking to play an important role in shaping the future of air transport in the UK. Besides maintaining safety standards in the UK, the organization provides added value throughout the industry on an international scale. It promotes best practice regulation across Europe and aims to be a leading partner in EASA, the European Aviation Safety Agency.

Apart from its well- known involvement in air safety, the CAA is also responsible for ATOL, the Air Travel Organiser's License scheme which protects holidaymakers from losing their deposits or being stranded abroad when their travel company goes under.

As it positions itself for the future, the CAA obviously needs to recruit and retain some of the very best professionals and provide a culture which inspires and rewards high performance. To drive continuous improvement of aviation safety and effectiveness, it clearly has to be committed to the ongoing development of its people and their capabilities.

Needless to say the CAA is an extremely varied organisation having a broad spectrum of business areas, each requiring particular skills, knowledge and experience. Consequently, the types of role for which it recruits are equally varied and, to ensure that it's drawing on the best talents available, it takes equality and diversity very seriously.

While many of the thousands who are employed by the CAA are engaged in highly specialist work specific to aviation safety, many others are active in all the back-up roles that you would typically expect to find in any large organization. Although it is based at two main locations, in Central London and Gatwick, it also maintains regional offices and exam centres at sites throughout England and Scotland in order to work closely with the aviation industry at the sharp end.

Refreshingly, the CAA maintains its own recruitment website so that prospective applicants can get a close insight into the organization and the opportunities on offer. It is possible to apply for individual jobs directly via the site and it even has a facility to register one's interest and file one's CV in anticipation of future vacancies in specific key roles.

Perhaps one of the biggest attractions of working for the CAA are the generous terms and conditions, including one of the very few remaining final salary pension schemes. Above all, the level of job security is almost second to none. The CAA is going to exist in one form or another for as long as people use air travel and, as it is funded by the airlines themselves, it is not subject to any public sector cutbacks.

One would expect that the eruption of Eyjafyoll and its travel-paralyzing ash cloud would have by now had some sobering effect on the attitudes of low-budget airlines and airport overseers. The recent criticism of Nats, the airspace authority and of the Civil Aviation Authority are made with what appears to be an imagined sense of judgement, as if airline executives reach their position with the innate knowledge that the Met Office is otherwise required to search for.

It seems counter-intuitive to imagine that it would be beneficial for a government agency to be somehow drawing out the situation, instead of in fact having had to choose between what is safe and what is economically sound. Conversely, reports from oft-neglected transport providers have been positive in the extreme; so far more than three major ferry companies – whose passenger totals waxed fivefold during the no-fly sanction – have announced overwhelming customer satisfaction with their services, and a general attitude of disbelief from passengers who had not considered this option due to outdated misconceptions of the service.

Rail networks too have picked up the slack, providing extended services across the country in a bid to connect stranded passengers. In this light, the invective against the government authorities seems to be a natural by-product of the unfortunate, but essentially unavoidable sanction on airspace. So, what accusations were levelled against these authorities? A spokesman for BA had the following to say: "...it is clear there is too much reliance on the theoretical model of ash spread produced by a single body: the London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre."

Instead of relying on theoretical models and highly specified organizations monitoring volcanic activity, would it be more sensible to make safety decisions based on the beliefs of itchy airline executives desperate to claw back lost revenue? Probably not. The rail industry's unexpected flourishing in this time is purely incidental; despite great pressure, some of the largest providers have been receiving an increase in passenger satisfaction, even while serving the air-travel industry, such as trains to Manchester and trains to trains to Liverpool, allowing for easier flight connections.

The Civil Aviation Authority's defence shows best that the airlines' damning of its decisions is more finger-pointing than objective criticism. Answering to Richard Branson's declaration that the closing of Manchester Airport a second time was 'a joke', a CAA spokesman was puzzled by the contradictory fact that representatives from the entrepreneur's airline had attended the conference on the agreed restrictions, and were given ample freedom to work alongside the authority in the road to recovery. The blame-hurling can be understood also in the light of poor holiday flight bookings in this year's first quarter so far.

The aviation industry is failing to provide passengers with adequate protection if airlines fail, according to a report by the Air Travel Insolvency Advisory Committee (ATIPAC). ATIPAC, which advises the Civil Aviation Authority, called for an end to the current system in which scheduled airlines are able to operate without offering passengers the same financial security that package holidaymakers enjoy, through the Air Tour Organiser’s License (ATOL) system.

Passengers flying as part of a package holiday with ATOL-protected operators automatically have a £1 charge added to the price of their holiday, which contributes to a regulated travel insurance fund. The news comes in the wake of a report by Blue Oar investments claiming at least 50 European airlines face bankruptcy if the current decline in the aviation industry fails to improve.

Rising fuel costs and the worldwide credit crunch have already seen at least 25 airlines go bust this year, including Silverjet, Eos, Maxjet, ATA and Oasis Hong Kong, while EasyJet, Ryanair and British Airways have announced cutbacks in flights this winter and falling profit in the last few weeks.

So how do you you protect yourself when an airline or tour operator goes bust? Who or what is out there? Some insurers offer Passenger Protection Insurance sold separately or Dynamic Packaging Protection as part of a travel insurance policy but always check the small print if this is offered because these are quite often restrictive in their cover. You can reduce the risk further by organising your travel through companies and agents covered by ATOL or who hold bonding through an approved body, such as ABTA or AITO.

ATOL stands for Air Travel Organiser’s licensing and is a protection scheme for flights and air holidays, managed by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) and protects the customer from losing money or being stranded abroad when a tour operator goes bust. All licensed firms have to lodge bonds with the CAA so that, if they go out of business, the CAA can give refunds to people who can’t travel and arrange for people abroad to finish their holidays and fly home. And ABTA? Members of the Association of British Travel Agents are required to provide financial protection for their customers which means that you can book your holiday knowing that if an ABTA member fails financially while you are on holiday, you can continue your holiday as planned.

If your holiday has not started, then you will receive a full refund or be given help to make alternative arrangements for the trip to proceed. Likewise AITO, or Association of Independent Tour Operators to give it its full title, require their members to protect their customer’s money in the event of an AITO member going into liquidation. Above all of this, it is vital you have a comprehensive travel insurance policy incase the worth was to happen.

In addition to the above, there are also a number of other possible uses and applications for the DIA site. One very strong possibility is to use a portion of the site to establish an Aerospace Village along the lines of the proposed Centurion Aerospace Village.

This would entail creating a centre where the domestic and foreign manufacturers of dirigibles, unmanned aerial systems (UAW) and non-type certificated aircraft (NTCA) would be encouraged to set up business. This type of concept could only be implemented with the direct support and assistance of Government.

Also, some of the excess land at DIA could be sold off and utilized for "new economy" industrial purposes, such as the manufacture of high value, low weight, time sensitive articles or components.

These industries could then utilize the air transport facilities at the "City Airport" for the rapid import of manufacturing components and the export of the completed manufactured goods.

This concept has proven to be very successful in areas such as the Philippines, Dubai, Hong Kong and some industrial zones in China.

It is clear that aviation industry could construct a very compelling proposal on how DIA could be used for a variety of aviation and other purposes.However, time is running out fast. If the industry does not act now it will not be able to put together a realistic proposal before the end of the year.

The country's interested bodies and stakeholders, therefore, urgently need to start working on a consolidated proposal that will convince Government to preserve DIA. Observers feel very strongly that, unless the aviation industry does not grasp the nettle, this opportunity would be lost forever.

The typical image people have of air traffic control (ATC) is that of a group of people in an airport tower who coordinate aircraft activity by staring at radar screens that use points of light to represent aircraft. While not fundamentally incorrect, this isn't a fair representation of the extent of ATC operations. This article will flesh out that simplistic image and introduce you to the equipment, technologies, and procedures that go into keeping aircraft and air travelers safe in the air and on the ground. We'll look at the way air traffic control is organized, and explore the communication technologies that air traffic controllers use to keep in touch with air crew and ground personnel. We'll also look at the radar technologies used to keep track of aircraft, and we'll end with a brief look at some next-generation technologies.

Safety and wake turbulence

The primary mandate of air traffic control is to ensure the safe transport of people and cargo by keeping aircraft at a safe distance from each other and expediting the flow of traffic. Air traffic controllers have access to sophisticated radar systems that provide an overview of the airspace they control, and they have communication tools to coordinate flight paths with the air crew. Pilots lack the tools necessary to get an overview of the airspace, so they have to rely on air traffic controllers to guide the aircraft through congested airspace.

Since aircraft travel at significantly higher speeds compared to other common modes of transport, the time available for pilots to react to a dangerous situation can be quite short. Thus it's essential that flight paths are carefully planned and managed to minimize the risk of a collision. This is especially true around major airports where the density of aircraft in a given volume of airspace is higher than average.

Turbulence created by wingtip vortices and exhaust gases from jet engines can be significant when aircraft are in close proximity. This phenomenon, called "wake turbulence," can adversely affect trailing aircraft if the distance between them falls below a certain limit. This limit depends on the mass of the two aircraft. For instance, a light aircraft following a heavy aircraft is more susceptible to wake turbulence than a heavy aircraft in the same situation. Therefore, aircraft approaching an airfield have to be carefully sequenced in a manner that takes such factors into consideration. Additionally, weather conditions such as low cloud, heavy rain, or snow blizzards can mean that pilots can't see other aircraft in the vicinity and have to use their instruments and instructions from air traffic control to navigate.
Types of ATC

Air traffic controllers are organized into various groups, each of which is in charge of handling a distinct portion of the aircraft's flight. Each group has a designated airspace that it controls, and aircraft are handed off to the next group of controllers as it approaches the limits of the prior group's airspace. The airspace controlled by each group is further divided into sectors that are themselves handled by individual controllers. The way these groups are organized varies from country to country and depends on the extent of controlled airspace and number of aircraft handled.

The Potomac TRACON facility controls approaches and departures in the airspace surrounding Baltimore Washington International, Washington Dulles, and Washington National airports.

The tower controllers are the most visible group. From their vantage point on the airport tower, they have a visual overview of all the important parts of the airport tarmac, such as runways and taxiways. Tower controllers monitor the airspace surrounding the airports and keep track of approaching and departing aircraft. At well-equipped airports, they may even have access to surface movement radar systems to monitor aircraft and support vehicles as they move on the ground.

Once the aircraft is in the air and clear of the airfield, tower control hands the aircraft off to a departure controller. These controllers are typically based at facilities a good distance from the airport. With the use of surveillance radars, they are able to monitor air traffic around the airport. These facilities are called Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) facilities in the US. In an area like New York, where airports are close to one another, a TRACON facility can service multiple airports. The controllers here ensure that the planes approaching and departing the airspace they control are following designated flight paths and speeds. TRACON facilities also sequence the aircraft that are coming in to land, in order to ensure that they are adequately separated to minimize any wake turbulence effects. Departure controllers also need to take into account aircraft that may be flying through their airspace, and keep them separated from aircraft landing or taking-off.

As the aircraft exits the TRACON airspace, a facility known as an Area Control Center (ACC) takes over. These facilities monitor the aircraft's flight while in controlled airspace through remote radar stations. Each ACC will have a designated airspace that it supervises. An aircraft may fly through multiple ACC sectors as it flies to its destination, with each ACC handing off control of the aircraft to the next ACC as it exits the former's airspace. Once an aircraft gets closer to its destination airport, the ACC controllers hand off responsibility to the approach controllers at the local TRACON, who guide and sequence the aircraft to the active runway, and finally to the tower controllers.

ATC Radar Systems

Air traffic controllers use radar systems positioned at or near the ATC facility to get a real-time overview of the aircraft flying in the airspace they control. Radar technology for detecting aircraft first became popular during the wars in the first half of the last century and played a vital role in their outcome. First-generation radar systems served as early warning systems; these systems had relatively poor resolution, and their only purpose was to alert their operators to the presence of flying objects in the radar's field of view. These early radars operated by emitting a continuous radio signal and listening for any echos, but they weren't able to use these echos to gauge the size of the aircraft, calculate its ground speed or altitude, or determine if the aircraft belonged to an ally or the opposition.

After the war, radar technology was advanced with improved electronics and materials for antenna construction. This allowed for systems that were much more efficient and had higher resolution. The Air Traffic Controllers today are served by many types of radar equipment such as Primary Surveillance Radars (PSR), Secondary Surveillance Radars (SSR), and Mode S for monitoring traffic in the air, and Surface Movement Radars (SMR) for traffic on the ground.

Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR)

The Primary Surveillance Radar is the traditional form of radar that most people are familiar with. The radar sends a directed pulse into the atmosphere, and when that pulse encounters an object it gets reflected back to the radar station. By having precise knowledge of the orientation of the radar and the time between the sending and receiving of the radio pulse, the bearing of the object with respect to the radar station and its approximate distance can be calculated. The radar is typically enclosed in a dome to protect it from adverse weather. The PSR cannot determine the altitude or elevation of the aircraft relative to that of the radar station. For this to be possible, a second radar that sweeps the sky vertically would be required. However, such technology is typically only found in Precision Approach Radar installations at military facilities to assist pilots with landing aircraft.

The potential for an aircraft to be detectable by the PSR depends on its Radar Cross Section (RCS). The RCS depends on a number of factors, including the distance between the aircraft and the radar, and the size of the aircraft. A larger aircraft, for instance, would be visible at a greater distance than a smaller aircraft due to the larger surface area available for reflecting the radar waves. Other factors, such as reflectivity properties of the aircraft skin, the wavelength of the radar signal, and the angle at which the radar signal is incident on the aircraft (and thereby reflected), also play a part in how visible an aircraft is to the PSR.

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)

The Secondary Surveillance Radar system—or Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) as it is sometimes referred to—is comprised of the ATC radar installation and a transponder that rides onboard the aircraft being monitored. The origins of SSR lie in the "identify friend or foe" system used by the military to distinguish allied and enemy aircraft. While a Primary Surveillance Radar listens for reflected radio signals, the Secondary Surveillance Radar listens for messages from the aircraft's transponder. The radar rotates about the vertical axis similar to a PSR, but transmits a specific signal on 1030 MHz. This signal is subsequently received by the aircraft's onboard transponder, which responds with a reply on 1090 MHz. Much like the PSR, the bearing and distance of the aircraft with respect to the radar installation can be calculated with precise knowledge of the orientation of the radar when the signal was transmitted.

The SSR system has many advantages over PSR. Firstly, since it doesn't rely on radio waves being reflected back by the aircraft, the radar cross section of the aircraft does not form a part of the equation. All aircraft in range of the radar, regardless of size, composition, or distance from the radar, can be "heard" equally well. Secondly, since the signal received by the radar originates on the aircraft, the signal is subject to less attenuation compared to a PSR signal. This is because the reflected PSR signal has to travel twice as much as the SSR signal. This also implies that the signal transmission power for an SSR can be much lower than that of a PSR.

While SSR has many advantages, the prime disadvantage is that the system needs a properly functioning transponder on the aircraft for it to work. An aircraft without a transponder would effectively be invisible to the SSR. For this reason, PSRs are still used as a backup mechanism in most parts of the world. The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) in the US (and similar regulations in most countries) require aircraft operating in air traffic controlled airspace to have an operational transponder.

SSR Modes

The signal transmitted by the SSR is termed the "interrogation signal." There are different modes of interrogation that compliant transponders respond to. Civil aircraft typically respond to interrogation modes A and C.

In Mode A, the transponder responds with its squawk code, a unique identifier for the aircraft assigned by ATC comprising of four octal numbers. This code enables ATC to differentiate between the various aircraft being monitored, though it can also be used to discretely communicate the existence of an emergency situation onboard the aircraft. For instance, a squawk code of 7500 indicates that the aircraft has been hijacked, and a squawk code of 7600 indicates that the pilots are unable to communicate with ATC.

In Mode C, the transponder responds with the aircraft's pressure altitude, which is the altitude above sea level as calculated using the barometric reading at the aircraft's altitude. The altitudes reported are in 100-feet increments. This information is vital for ATC to ensure that aircraft flying in close proximity have adequate vertical separation.

Mode S is an improved secondary surveillance mode, and it operates over the same radio frequencies as SSR, making it backwards compatible. While Modes A and C in the legacy SSR system "broadcast" an interrogation message to all aircraft in the path of the radar beam, Mode S selectively interrogates individual aircraft using a 24 bit identifier that is assigned to the aircraft upon registration.

Mode S has a number of advantages over Modes A and C, the first of which is that its selective interrogation approach reduces the workload on the system, as it might be inundated with SSR replies in heavily congested airspace. Secondly, the legacy SSR system allowed for a transponder identification code of only four octal digits (12 bits) that yielded just 4096 codes (not including reserved codes) which were assigned by ATC. To complicate matters, this could be different for the same aircraft in different ATC sectors. As the number of aircraft increased over the past few decades, there was a scarcity in the number of available transponder codes, but move to a 24 bit addressing system alleviated the problem. Finally, the altitude reporting in Mode C was in increments of 100 feet, but this was improved to increments of 25 feet, allowing controllers to have a more accurate picture of aircraft positions.
Surface Movement Radar (SMR)

The airfield can be a busy place, with pushback tugs, tractors with baggage containers in tow, refuelling trucks, catering trucks, airport security vehicles, and (of course) aircraft. While the PSR and SSR provide controllers with an overview of aircraft in the air, the surface movement radar provides a real-time view of aircraft and support vehicles on the ground at airports. Most modern airports have Ground Control in charge of ensuring that critical patches of the airport tarmac such as active runways and taxiways are safe for moving aircraft.

Ground Control can observe all moving vehicles and aircraft on a radar screen overlaid on a map of the airport. As the objects being tracked by an SMR are relatively smaller than those tracked by a PSR or SSR, the radar uses a much shorter wavelength (and correspondingly higher frequency) with a narrow beam for a higher resolution result. Depending on the size of the airport, multiple installations of this sort may be required to cover all the critical parts of the airport. Enhancements to this basic system include having airport support vehicles installed with transponders that can be queried to ascertain location. Similarly, aircraft transponders can be queried to augment the radar display with call signs. Information from the tower radar can also be incorporated to display approaching aircraft. Newer systems can even aurally warn controllers of potential runway incursions and conflicts, so that action can be taken in time to avoid disaster. Such a system is generally called an Airport Movement Area Safety System.

Unfavorable weather conditions such as heavy rain and fog can lead to a reduction in visibility, making it difficult to monitor the tarmac. Runway incursions are a constant danger in such challenging conditions. A runway incursion is described by ICAO (International Civil Aviation Authority) as the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft. The Tenerife Airport Disaster, the deadliest accident in aviation history, was as a result of two aircraft colliding with each other on the runway. The incident occurred in heavy fog and at a time when the air traffic controller on duty could not see the two aircraft, nor could the two pilots see each other. A more recent incident that highlights the importance of the surface movement radar in emergency situations is the crash of british airways flight 038 on the threshold of runway 27L at London Heathrow Airport.

Air-Ground Voice Communication

In the early years of aviation, when there were fewer planes in the sky than we have today and there was not much need for pilots to communicate with ground personnel, signalling was often done using lights and flags. But with an increase in aircraft, a more efficient and unambiguous two-way communication system became necessary. At the same time, radio technology was progressing, and it became feasible for aircraft to have radio transceivers on board.

Aircraft communication in the early years was over the HF (High Frequency) range of the radio spectrum. In the US, each airline company had its own dedicated radio frequency over which company pilots communicated with their operators on the ground. But over time, with an increase in airliner companies and air traffic, this system soon led to a depletion in the available frequencies on the spectrum. The problem was resolved by setting up a common entity that provided air traffic coordination services. This allowed for a better use of the available radio spectrum, as pilots communicated with air traffic personnel over common frequencies. Over time, this system evolved to the air traffic control system we have today.

Modern civil aviation uses the HF (High Frequency) and VHF (Very High Frequency) parts of the spectrum for communication between aircraft and ATC. Military aviation in various countries are also known to operate in UHF (Ultra High Frequency). Early air to ground voice communication was over HF, but VHF started to get adopted in the 1930s and 1940s.

VHF communication

VHF is the predominant frequency range used by civil aviation in most parts of the world, and communication usually happens over the 118 MHz to 138 MHz frequency range via an amplitude modulated (AM) signal. (FM radio, in comparison, is over frequencies from 87 MHz to 108 MHz in most countries, and is of course, frequency modulated.) The frequency 121.5 MHz is reserved for emergencies in the VHF frequency range.

VHF transmissions rely heavily on a line-of-sight between the transmitter and receiver. This doesn't necessarily mean a visual line-of-sight, however, but a "radio line-of-sight" in the VHF part of the spectrum. Solid structures, such as buildings or the earth's surface, tend to attenuate the signal (or reduce its strength). Additionally, atmospheric layers do not refract or reflect VHF waves well. Due to these characteristics of VHF propagation, and due to the curvature of the earth, an aircraft below a VHF transmitter's radio horizon would typically fall outside its range. Thus the nature of the terrain and the height of the aircraft above the ground plays a part in determining whether it is in range of a given ground station operating over VHF frequencies.

For instance, the range would be severely curtailed for low-flying aircraft in hilly areas or urban areas with tall skyscrapers. In such cases, signal repeaters can be used to increase coverage. Theoretically, an aircraft at cruise altitude, flying in ideal weather conditions with a good quality transceiver can expect to communicate with a station unobstructed by hilly terrain about 200 nautical miles away (370 kilometers or 230 miles). In less than ideal real-world conditions however, this range can be significantly lower.

VHF operating frequencies are allocated to ATC stations in such a way that they do not interfere with each other, and since VHF relies on line-of-sight, frequencies can be reused by other distant stations. A typical activity for controllers is to pass on the frequency used by the next ATC sector to the pilot as the aircraft exits the ATC's airspace.

HF communication

When flying over large expanses of water, VHF communication, due to its line-of-sight nature becomes unusable. Additionally it would be impractical to construct, operate and maintain VHF relay stations in the middle of the ocean. So in these situations, HF can be used to communicate with an aircraft below the station's horizon and often many thousands of nautical miles away. In some cases, HF transmissions are known to have been successfully received on the other side of the planet. Thus pilots flying certain oceanic routes that are outside radar coverage use HF to periodically report their position to the oceanic control station for the sector they are flying in.

HF has some major drawbacks that make it impractical for more widespread applications. First, HF signal propagation is highly dependent on atmospheric conditions and solar activity, making HF communication comparatively noisy and unreliable. Due to this variability, ATC stations operating over HF have a number of alternative frequencies that they can operate over, and they switch to the frequency with the best signal propagation characteristics at the time.

It's also the case that HF signals have a longer wavelength than VHF signals, so the antennas used for transmitting and receiving are much larger, as well. And HF transmitters also operate at a higher power, since the receivers may potentially be hundreds of nautical miles away.

Next-generation Technologies

The aviation industry has been relatively conservative in its approach to adopting new technologies, so a number of the systems described so far are based on technology that has been around for at least a few decades. This conservatism is primarily attributable to the safety and reliability considerations that must be taken into account when making changes to existing equipment and procedures.

While tried-and-true systems do provide the required safety, this safety may at times come at the cost of efficiency. Critics of the current air traffic control systems claim that efficiency gains of many percentage points remain to be realized by more intelligent routing in controlled airspace that allows for lower separation distances between aircraft.

Currently, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the US is studying the implementation of various next-generation technologies to improve the efficiency of the ATC system while retaining or improving the level of safety. Next generation will incorporate global positioning satellites, digital communication networks, data networking, and improved weather forecasting to improve efficiency. Of all the technologies being considered, Automatic Dependant Surveillance (ADS-B) is being billed as the the future of air traffic control and as the backbone of the NextGen system.

Automatic Dependant Surveillance—Broadcast (ADS-B)

ADS-B is a relatively new technique (compared to use of primary and secondary surveillance radar) to monitor aircraft. The technique uses the global positioning system (GPS) to provide an accurate report of an aircraft's position. As the name suggests, this is a broadcast technique where an aircraft equipped with an ADS-B transponder routinely broadcasts data. Using similar information from all aircraft, the air traffic controllers can build an accurate picture of aircraft positions. ADS-B is able to provide information not unlike an SSR, but without the requirement for a radar installation or transmissions from a ground station.

The aircraft typically transmits its identity, current position, speed, and direction of travel (among other parameters) over a digital link, twice every second. Due to the broadcast nature of the data, other aircraft in the region can also receive this information and provide their pilots with an overview of the traffic in the neighborhood as well. One of the advantages of the ADS-B system is that the receiver can be relatively simple and inexpensive. Another advantage is that ground vehicles at the airport can use the same system to report their location on the airport tarmac which can be incorporated into the Airport Movement Area Safety System described earlier.

One of the disadvantages of ADS-B is that the system relies on the GPS system for accurate reporting of position information. Loss or degradation of the GPS signal could potentially put lives in danger. This can be mitigated to an extent by alternative sources of positioning information such as the European Galileo project, the Russian GLONASS project or the Chinese Beidou project, when they become fully operational. The other disadvantage is that a malfunctioning or inoperative transponder could render the aircraft invisible, or worse, broadcast false information. This is one reason for the continued use of surveillance radars as backup. Given the relative simplicity and cost-effectiveness of building an ADS-B transponder (compared to surveillance radars) and the open nature of the system, critics fear it is also a security hazard as it would in theory be possible to spoof data to represent aircraft that don't actually exist.

Listening to ATC and Tracking Aircraft

ATC and pilots communicate over open, well-advertised frequencies. Since VHF communication takes place using frequencies between 118 MHz to 138 MHz, a frequency range not commonly available on general purpose radio receivers, a scanner that can tune into these frequencies is required. It isn't unusual for serious aviation enthusiasts to invest in a good quality scanner to listen to their local air traffic controllers and pilots. Sites such as live ATC stream ATC broadcasts from various ATC facilities in the world. One must, however, exercise caution and check local laws first, as listening to ATC is illegal in certain jurisdictions. HF communications also occur over open, well-advertised frequencies and, unlike VHF, general purpose shortwave radios often have the frequency range to tune into oceanic ATC. Due to the nature of HF propagation, it may be possible to listen to controllers thousands of miles away, but the reception quality will vary.

The ADS-B system, as it operates currently, is an open system as well. It is possible to purchase an ADS-B receiver for as little as $600. A number of enthusiast sites such as flightradar24 (Scandinavian region), Zurich University of Applied Sciences' School of Engineering radar site (Switzerland) and Casper(Netherlands) provide an overview of aircraft in their region by listening to ADS-B transmissions.

Pilot training is gaining a lot of interest and momentum these days especially among the aviation enthusiasts and hobby fliers who may wish to rent an aircraft and for those who own a personal aircraft. Owning an aircraft is no longer a symbol of status among the who’s who. Learning to fly one’s dream machine is what completes the whole package when it comes to flaunting one’s wealth. This has resulted in mushrooming of many aviation academies in India like Chimes Aviation Academy, which boasts of providing private pilot training on the much famed Cessna 172 and is also one of the best aviation academies in the country.

To become a private pilot, one has to obtain a Private Pilot License (PPL) which permits the holder to act as the pilot of an aircraft privately (i.e. he does not fly an aircraft for any remuneration). The requirements to obtain the license are determined by the International Civil Aviation Authority (ICAO), but the actual implementation varies widely from country to country.

While undergoing training at an aviation academy, the student is given a Student Pilot License. Student Pilot License is given to those with 10+2 with science and aged at least 16 years should register at a flying club which is recognized by Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), Government of India.

The second step is the Private Pilot License (PPL). PPL training includes sixty hours of flying of which about fifteen hours are dual flights, that is accompanied by the flight instructor and at least 30 hours of solo flights apart from five hours of cross-country flying. This makes one eligible for the Private Pilot License exam. The prescribed age for appearing for this exam is 17 years and an educational qualification of 10+2 along with a Medical Fitness Certificate issued by the Armed Forces Central Medical Establishment (AFCME).

Although there are various types of aircraft, many of the principles of pilot training have common techniques. All pilot training courses consist of some combination of theoretical learning conducted on the ground and practical exercises conducted in the air. Initial pilot training is often conducted in specialized training aircraft (most aviation academies use Cessna 172), which are designed for benign handling characteristics and lower costs compared to the aircraft which the pilot concerned is ultimately aiming to fly.

Aviation academies train an individual on the various skills required to fly an aircraft. It teaches a pilot the process of flying an aircraft through the air with proper direction and control. It also teaches the students to understand the weather forecasts.

Private pilot training program mainly require high level of innovative mind capabilities and great aptitude skills. This supports the candidate to get the concept in an easy manner.

However, with such busy and fast paced life, many passionate fliers do not get time to fulfill their dream. Thus Chimes Aviation Academy has come up with a Cruiser (Executive PPL) programme which enables the student to pursue flying with a convenient, personalized over the weekend schedule. The schedule is designed to make the student a Private Pilot License holder in just nine weekends. Currently, Chimes Academy has Bollywood actors Kunal Kapoor and Chitrangda Singh and ace golfer Jyoti Randhawa as its students.

East Africa has Soroti in Uganda as one of the latest and old pilot training schools followed by East Africa School of Aviation based in Kenya for ,Air Controllers course, Flight Dispatch and operations course, Engineering ,Management courses in aviation. Kenya has emerged as one of the fastest pilot training area with Wilson Airport leading with over 5 flying schools and with the launching of Orly Airpark recently which will mainly provide private aircraft parking and training to decongest the Wilson Airport.

For your pilot training course you are advised to engage a consultant in aviation. There are many schools in Kenya but some do not advice professionally but they are only after money and it might take you over 3 years to complete your flying hence need to engage a consultant who has the knowledge and experience which school provides quality, effective and efficient service. The consultant will also assist you on a daily basis and engage the school on why they are not following the syllabus or taking too long for a certain course and this will put them on their toes to improve in there area of weakness. As a student is you complain there will be bad blood even lead to suspension and thus affecting you mentality which will ruin your career.

1. Examination Fees and Other Charges hiked by Kenya Civil Aviation Authority.

The Kenya Civil Aviation Authority propose to introduce a new "flight safety charge" of usd 2 per passenger on internal flights and kshs 50 on domestic flights. Stakeholders have warned repeatedly that it is better to collect one ‘commuted' annual fee per aircraft rather than a little fee for each service. The annual fee for licenses are being virtually doubled, such as, Students Pilot License will go up from kshs 500 to kshs 1, 000, a CPL from kshs 2,700 to kshs 4,500, and a Type Rating from 900 to 2,000.

Costs of sitting examinations are being tripled. In the PPL, Air law will increase from 500/- to 1,500/- , Navigation from 500/- to 1,500/- , etc. All CPL Subjects are proposed to go up from 1,100/- to 3,000/- each.

Ethnic discrimination still remains a feature in conversion of CPLs "foreigners" will pay kshs 16,000/- for writing a conversion paper of their foreign CPL, while "Kenyans" pay only kshs 10,000/-.

ATPL conversion exams will cost foreigners kshs 32,000/- whereas Kenyans will pay kshs 16,000/-. While we have these variations, Kenya Civil Aviation Authority is supposed to be reminded that ICAO regulations states that all aviation fees and charges must be the same for everybody, foreign or indigenous.

There are consultants who can organize for ground classes for Engineers, Pilots for those who want to convert their licenses before they sit for the exams and it normally takes 4 weeks for South Africa & American trained students and for British 1month and 2 weeks in class to be able to pass the exams.

2. Uganda CAA Scuttles Student Training.

The Uganda Civil Aviation Authority has now instructed all the flying schools that no hours flown will be logged before having obtained the Student Pilots License. In Uganda the issuance of the Students Pilot License takes weeks and month with the loss of applications, the need for a separate "security" check and the obvious miscommunication and loss of documents possibilities between CAA and security body.

The new Uganda Civil Aviation Regulations apparently require this and the CAA is now enforcing it and disallowing any flight time done by students during their interminable wait for the SPL.This means that before a school can start flying with a student, if he wants to log that time, then there will be a delay of unknown duration while the application is processed. This basically kills off flight training in Uganda for all but the very patient.

Instructors feel that it certainly takes away any attraction of a trial lesson in that the student can no longer log this 30 minutes. And when all fired up and excited from the trial lesson they will now have to wait weeks or months to begin training .This will effectively reduce the number of people wanting to start training.

Flight schools are now struggling for survival in Uganda, despite the fact that there is a good demand and the airlines are crying out for new Ugandan pilots.

You are probably raring to go on that long awaited and well deserved overseas holiday with your family. However, like most people going on foreign tours, you must be carrying some apprehensions concerning the safety of yourself and your family. After all, your family is your most prized possession and the last thing you want is that they be stranded in some strange and unfamiliar foreign land in the event of something going awry.

In these days of economic turmoil, we often hear of companies going bust and the frequent cancellation of flights. In such a scenario, it is not alarmist to make safeguards for such a situation against the airlines and travel company you bank upon. After all, god forbid, if something like this does happen in the middle of your vacation, you would not want to face the avoidable nightmare of fending for yourself and watching your hard earned money going down the drain!

Thanks to Air Travel Organisers' Licensing (ATOL) scheme, you can get yourself an iron clad guarantee against such unforeseen circumstances. ATOL is a scheme for ensuring the financial protection of travellers. Under this scheme, in case a travel operator listed under ATOL goes bust, then passengers of that tour operator do not have to suffer hassles like losing money or staying marooned. For instance, if you plan your itinerary with Southall Travel, which is an ATOL member, you won't run such risks. To be thorough in your homework, always make sure that you check out the operator's website, which in this instance is Southall Travel UK.

ATOL makes it mandatory for its travel operators to be part of a financial guarantee scheme for passengers. This scheme is under the management of Air Travel Trust (ATT) and this is the agency responsible for providing bailout funds that ensure passenger safety, when things go wrong. You simply cannot afford to overlook ATOL, especially when you book tickets for long haul air travel like flights to India further eastwards. The significance of ATOL can be gauged from the fact that it falls under the responsibility of Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), which is the number one specialist aviation regulator in the UK.

The UK government even mandates that all tour operators selling flight packages within its boundaries need to hold the ATOL license. This license is granted only when the tour operator in question satisfies the licensing requirements laid down by the CAA. Every ATOL holder has an exclusive ATOL number, and this number can be cross checked by visiting the CAA website, CAA UK.

In a way, ATOL is like your travel insurance. In fact, ATOL members do need to acquire insurance bonds from the CAA. The purpose behind the entire exercise is to make sure that passengers face the least possible inconvenience in the event of flight cancellation. Not only are passengers entitled to refund of fares and alternative flights, they also get other amenities promised in the holiday deal package.

So, next time you think about saving some money by booking DIY holidays, keep it in mind that you would be much better off with an ATOL protected holiday package anytime. Saving a few pounds by not ensuring ATOL protection and then blowing off a major chunk of your savings in case of some misfortune is not a wise deal at all.

Indian aviation industry is one of the fastest growing aviation industries on the globe. The aviation industry in India has undergone a rapid transformation from primarily being a government-owned industry to a privately owned industry today.

Private airlines in India account for around 75% share of the domestic aviation market. Earlier, air travel was a privilege that only a few could afford but it has now become an everyday affair while being much cheaper and affordable. In fact, airlines are adopting a cost effective approach by keeping fares as low as possible.

Jobs in aviation are available in large numbers as it is a vast field that offers plenty of options. Anyone looking for a shift from regular office jobs can hope to make an interesting career in airlines. It involves lot of travel as obvious though there are ground staff jobs also for those not willing to travel much. From pilots to cabin crew like air hostesses and stewards to air and ticketing executives, it extends innumerable career opportunities for all kind of professionals.

Aviation industry in India had suffered huge losses during the times of global meltdown. As the world faced a financial crunch, traveling reduced to almost one-fourth of the original figure becoming a cause of concern. Various mergers and pacts were made among aviation companies in order to survive the losses and pass the phase of recession unaffected. And after the bad times, economic revival finally entered the industry bringing smiles to airline owners.

The restoration of airline sector is expected by next year as lots of activity could be seen in last quarter. As per the latest estimates released by the Ministry of Civil Aviation, an increase in traffic movement and revenues has been witnessed during December 2009. And so, the Airports Authority of India would accrue better margins this fiscal as compared to the last year. This upward movement is being primarily attributed to the increase in share of revenue from Delhi International Airport Limited (DIAL) and Mumbai International Airport Limited (MIAL) along with the increase in airport charges.

Foreign investment is also being encouraged in Indian aviation which is up to 33% in domestic airlines. According to Investment Commission hundreds of billion dollars will be pumped in to update and buy new aircrafts; for the development of airport infrastructure; pilot training and air cargo services. As it is, airline industry is facing problems with ATF prices, rising labor costs and shortage of skilled labor, rapid fleet expansion and intense price competition among the players. Seeing the huge amounts of investments, a brighter future of aviation sector is expected.

With large-scale investments being made, more and more jobs in aviation sector are opening up. Some of the vacancies available in airlines include:

-Operations Manager

-Guest Relations Executive

-Travel Consultant

-Fare Filling Executive

-Reservations Executive

-Air Ticket Executive

-Travel Desk Executive

-Travel Coordinator

-Ground Staff

-Product Manager

-Corporate Travel Consultant

-Assistant Manager

-Supervisor

-Tele marketing executives

-Branch Manger

-Deputy Manager

-Immigration Specialist

-Programme Management Manager

-Relationship Manager

-Line Captain

-Cabin Crew

-Sales Manager

-Finance Manager

As apparent, you can choose your field of interest and still associate with airline industry. It is a very glamorous field that asks for right skill sets, loads of confidence, customer handling abilities, right body language and excellent communication skills. An airline professional has to be always prepared to deal with toughest of the situation as journey of the flights is very unpredictable.

Jobs in airlines are burgeoning and recruiters are hunting for candidates with pleasing personality and right bent of mind. This industry is all set to reach heights and bring back the boom again.

Hats off to the Lagos, Nigeria which has got this remarkable achievement when the U.S. Ambassador declared, that they are giving Nigeria, Air aviation most wanted category 1 certificate. The whole country has celebrated this joyful event with full zeal. So now people from any where in the world can take advantage of secure flying with flights to Lagos. Lagos is the administrative and economical hub of Nigeria. Most of the official affairs are designated to this city. The Nigerian federal aviation operations are mainly carried out at the famous Murtala Muhammad international airport which is situated in Lagos.



Nigeria has got a big fame due to its aviation industry by getting the International Aviation Safety Assessment Certification (IASA). With this rank, Nigeria's air safety evaluation has been improved and now makes this nation capable enough to stand in the leading group of countries that are greatly ranked in carrying passengers to and from world wide destinations by air. Now you can take flights to Lagos any time with full peace of mind that your journey will be more secure than ever before. Now with this certificate the Airlines of Nigeria can fly to any where to any state of U.S. directly with Nigerian cabin crew.



This ranking of the nation means that it meets all the global air safety laws made by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). This organization has worldwide eminence in aviation and also a nominal agency of United Nations. This agency sets rules for the functions and protections of air lines. In July a survey was conducted by the U.S. Federal Aviation Authority and this certificated is result of that review. Many other countries have got this certificate but many of them failed to maintain it but Nigerian government assured that they will maintain all these standards rather will try to improve it more. This certificate has also saved millions of dollars of Nigerian aviation industry by applying lesser insurance premium on the Airlines. Flights to Lagos have become a great source of contentment now which anyone can opt without taking any other option.



Mostly business travelers travel to Lagos for the trading, industrial and administrative significance of the city in Nigeria. Booking Lagos flights will not only offer them quality flying services but also at very cheaper rates. Because now Arik Air would list the airplane which is operating flights to Lagos from and to New York with the Nigerian cabin crew will save more money to the Airlines and finally to travelers.

Air news gives an overview on air transport globally on growth, Decline and new Innovations which give aviators an idea on which strategy to apply in the existing air transport business environment.

There three segments of air news that this article will dwell on as below,

(1)BUSINESS JET NEWS.

The launch of Legacy 650 jet by Embrear Manufacturer of other aircrafts like turbo prop for both cargo and passengers. It was during an air show of National Business Aircraft Association (NBAA) exhibition that this news were availed.Ambrear company revealed its NEW Legacy 650 Jet the large executive jet category aircraft based on the successful platform of the super mid-size Legacy 650 which will provide longer range for up to 14 passengers currently, two Legacy 650s are performing flight tests with certification and first deliveries scheduled for the second half of 2010. The Legacy development costs are already included in the company's research and in development plan for 2009-2010 and therefore; do not affect the guidelines previously provided by Embrear.

The Legacy 650 will fly up to 3,900 nautical miles nonstop with four passengers or 3,800 nautical miles with eight passengers, meaning approximately 500nm further than the Legacy 600. This significant increase in range was accomplished through extensive airframe modifications, such as reinforced wing and landing gear, larger fuel capacity, the new highly efficient and more powerful Rolls-Royce AE 3007A2 engines. Honeywell's new primus Elite avionics suite will equip the Legacy 650 future legacy 600s.

All of this is done while maintaining the same comfortable and functional interior of the Legacy 600,with its three distinct cabin zones and gallery, as well as the claimed large compartment of any executive jet.

Cabin noise levels were reduced with a state-of-the-art sound insulation package and the high-speed internet data link has been upgraded to Immarsats swift broad-band system. Besides its longer range ,the Legacy 650 has outstanding performance capabilities in such hot and/or high destinations as Dubai, Aspen, and Telluride (US) ,and Toluca (Mexico) .La Paz (Bolivia) also becomes a viable destination for the Legacy 650, due to the high attitude landing and take off capability that allows the aircraft to operate out of airports at elevations up to 13,800 feet it will also be one of largest executive jets allowed to fly in and out of the Cannes-Mandelieu (France) and London city (UK) airports.

Maximum operating speed (VMO) has increased to 300 KCAS below 8000 feet and 45 degrees maximum flap extended speed (vfe) increased to 160 KIAS, resulting in greater operational flexibility. Two Rolls-Royce AE 3007A2 engines power the Legacy 650 .This refined version of the AE 3007A1E engine combines an advanced wide-chord fan with a service-proven core-over 35-million hours of operations on all AE3007 models and updated full authority digital engine control(FADEC) software that optimizes fuel consumption during cruise. With 9020 pounds of thrust each, the engines produce an average of 29% less carbon dioxide (co2) than competitor's older aircraft and up to 22% less than current –generation jets. They also comply with the latest International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) stage IV noise.

(2)MILITARY NEWS.

Boeing receives Australian Industry Award for F-111 support. On October 2, 2009, in Brisbane received an Engineering Excellence Award, Resource Development Category , from the Queensland Division of Engineers Australia. The Award from the states top engineering organization recognizes Boeing Defense Australia's best practices in support of Australia's F-111 strike aircraft fleet." For almost 15 years, Boeing defense Australia (BDA) has implemented innovative maintenance and engineering practices for the Royal Australia Air Force (RAAF) aging F-111 aircraft to ensure the platforms air superiority, despite the emergence of more modern fighter/bomber aircraft.

According to Mr. Dubby ,Managing Director and Vice President of BDA the close working relationship with RAAF key projects to keep the F-111 flying safely and effectively such as Avionics upgrade programmes Hardware/software installations and wing sustainment programmes .The successful rollout of these projects and new technologies ,exemplifier the BDA Engineering teams professionalism and innovation. Boeing Defense Australia , wholly owned Boeing subsidiary and a business unit of Boeing Integrated Defense Systems, has nearly 2000 employees at 13 locations throughout Australia supporting programmes for the Australia government and defense forces, International and commercial customers.

(3) AFRICAN AIRLINES NEWS

REBRANDED AIRLINE. Lagos-Virgin Nigeria has rebranded itself as Nigerian Eagle Airlines following the departure of Richard Bransons Virgin Group from Airline earlier this year. The New company has meanwhile already started repainting the aircraft in a new livery.

AIRBUS CONSIDERED. Nairobi-Kenya Airways is reportedly considering the purchase of between six and nine airbus A330-200S to meet capacity demands.

OUAGADOUGOU. Royal Air is a Mali-based leasing company that has started operations with two Lockheed L1011 Tri-Star passenger jets.

GHANA STARTS UP. Accra-Meridian Airlines is a new start –up cargo carrier based in Ghana. It has started operations with a fleet of three DC-8 Freighters.

ETHIOPIAN GROWTH. Addis Ababa-Fresh from celebrating having been awarded the airline of the year 2009, Ethiopian Airlines has further expanded its route network with the start of new services to Mombas, Conakry and Monrovia. The carrier has also added second MD-11 FREIGHTER to boost its cargo capacity. A second Boeing 737-800 has also joined the fleet. This aircraft has a capacity for 16 passengers in Business class and 138 passengers in the Economy class and will be operated on the Africa and Middle East routes.

The carrier has expanded its operations increasing flight frequencies to its eleven destinations in Africa, Europe, Middle East and Asia. Ethiopian Airlines will add four weekly flights to Nairobi and Dare-salaam two weekly flights to Accra, Delhi, Beijing and one weekly flight to Stockholm, Tel AVIV, Bamako, Dakar, Juba and Lubumbashi.

STELLAR GROWTH. Johannesburg-South African based cargo airline, Star Air Cargo, has added an additional Boeing 737-200 to its fleet based at OR Tambo International Airport.

ATR ORDER. Tripoli- Libyan Airlines placed an order for two ATR 42-500S at the recent LAVEX 2009 aviation expo in Tripoli. The aircraft valued at some $ 35-million, are expected to be delivered by year-end. This order marks the first entry of the manufacturer into the Libyan Marketplace and sees a return of turbo prop aircraft to the Libyan carriers' fleet.

OPERATIONS RESTARTED. Cairo- Egyptian charter airline, Midwest Airlines, has resumed services with a single Boeing 737-600. Its destinations include Bratislava and a number of Polish Cities.

TURBOPROP EXPANSION. Nairobi- Blue Bird Aviation is yet another African carrier to take delivery of the Bombardier DASH8 –Q400 turbo prop. It recently acquired two former SAS operated aircraft for operations from its Wilson Airport base.

JAPANESE TRAFFIC RIGHTS. The Kenyan Government has requested Japan to consider giving traffic rights to Kenya Airways to establish a direct flight between Kenya & Japan

With the above air news reports you will able to know where the aviation industry is heading and where to add more product lines and where to remove because you be up dated on growth and decline and new developments.

The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has proclaimed to have revised the Employment Authorization Document (EAD) or Form I-766. In order to add a machine-readable zone on the back of the card, the EAD cards have been revised.

Generally, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services issues the Employment Authorization Document, which is also referred to as the U.S. work permit visa. The visa authorizes the holder to work in the United States lawfully. The Form I-766 has to be filed by a foreign national who stays in the U.S. temporarily and wishes to acquire an EAD.

On the basis of the foreign national's immigration situation, the EAD cards are issued for a specific period of time. Unless the employer has any citizenship requirements, the foreign national with an EAD card can work anywhere in the United States. If the immigrant holds an EAD card, the employer is not even required to file a non-immigrant worker petition.

Currently, the USCIS issues EAD cards under two categories, namely the Renewal EADs and the Replacement EADs. The renewal EAD can be applied for not more than 120 days before the current EAD expires. When lost, stolen, or damaged, individuals can apply for their replacement EAD cards. EAD cards can also be replaced if they contain incorrect information or misspelled name.

In view of deterring immigration fraud, the EAD cards have been revised by the USCIS. The revised EAD cards are being issued by the USCIS from May 11, 2010. The machine-readable zone that has been added newly is in accordance with the International Civil Aviation Organization standards.

The previous version had a two-dimensional bar code, which has now been removed. Additionally, the USCIS has shifted the informational text box just below the magnetic stripe on the card and has retained all the security features that the previous version had.

The revision of the EAD cards has resulted from the collaboration of the USCIS with the U.S. Immigration and Custom Enforcement and the Customs and Border Protection.

India has been found to be fully compliant with the international safety standards by an audit done by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the United States of America. Before permitting a foreign airline to operate in the USA, FAA of US, backed by the US legislation conducts an audit of the concerned country’s Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)/ DGCA to ensure its capability for providing safety certification and continuing oversight on its international carriers. The audit is conducted under an ‘International Aviation Safety Assessment Programme’ (IASA) and focuses on the country's ability to adhere to standards and recommended practices of International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) for aircraft operations and maintenance.

Under the IASA programme, FAA in the year 1997 had conducted an audit of DGCA India and had awarded Category 1 status to India. This year, in March 2009, FAA, based on the report of an audit conducted by ICAO in October 2006, conducted a reassessment of DGCA. While the FAA’s IASA team found India to be compliant in areas of aviation legislation, operating regulations, civil aviation structure and safety oversight functions, and licensing and certification obligations, it raised concerns in the areas of adequate technical guidance for DGCA inspectors, hiring and retaining technical personnel in DGCA, establishment of an on-going surveillance programme of air operators and the resolution of identified safety issues. DGCA was required to rectify the concerns in the identified areas in a short time frame of about five months. Repercussions of non-action could have resulted in India being downgraded to Category 2 status from the Category 1, which has been held by India since 1997.

Under Category 2, no expansion/ changes to the services of Indian air carriers would have been permitted by USA and the existing operations would have been subjected to ‘heightened FAA surveillance’. Such a downgrade would not only have resulted to an economic impact to the nation but would also have been a setback to India’s image worldwide in ICAO, EU, USA and in the international aviation community. The FAA IASA team revisited DGCA on 23rd September 2009, to confirm and validate the action taken on the concerns since the audit in March 2009. The visit was also made to ascertain the information which were provided to FAA by DGCA from time to time in the previous few months on the progress made to make good the deficiencies. During the discussions, the FAA team confirmed the action taken by DGCA to make good the identified concerns of the earlier March 2009 audit.

The team confirmed DGCA meeting the international standards in the area of aviation law and regulations and confirmed that the powers of Director General were well laid down in the various parts of the Aircraft Act, 1934 and Aircraft Rules, 1937 and the regulations were available to all users. In the area of CAA Structure and safety oversight functions, the team acknowledged that lack of financial resources is not a constraint for DGCA and that there has been an eight-fold increase in the annual budget for DGCA this year.

In 2009-10, DGCA has 40 crores under Plan and Rs 22 crores under non-plan. FAA was informed by DGCA that a feasibility study for establishment of Civil Aviation Authority has been commissioned and will commence in October 2009. The FAA team was shown the technical guidance, which was prepared in areas of operations, airworthiness and enforcement for the guidance and use of safety inspectors of DGCA for day-to-day functioning including the training provided to the inspectors on their use.

The availability of an increased number of flight operations inspectors on board with DGCA which now includes 14 full time Government Flight Operations Inspectors (FOI) and 18 FOIs on secondment from industry was shown to the FAA team as against the previous of only four FOIs in March 2009. It was emphasized to the team that current increased salary levels based on the 6th Pay Commission has increased the attractiveness of Government positions and retention has improved.

Government has approved and revised about 560 technical positions and 150 non-technical positions in addition to existing 160 technical and 177 non-technical positions. Aggressive action plan for recruitment is under way. 72 technical officers are being hired in September – October on short term contract. Higher level of financial delegation given to the DGCA by Government of India. DGCA has inturn delegated financial powers to regional offices. DGCA now has 13 directortes as against exiting 9. Four new directorates have been added. A DGCA wide internal and external training programme has been developed.

Further, a big project of IT led solutions in DGCA is in advanced stage of action. DGCA India fulfils all international standards regarding Licensing and Certification Obligations. The DGCA-wide surveillance program was shared with the team and it was emphasized that all airlines including foreign airlines are included in the surveillance programme which is under aggressive implementation.

The programme of surveillance includes Indian registered as well as aircraft taken by Indian operators on wet lease. The current programme for 2009 includes 4,327 surveillance activities, of which 2545 have been conducted till August 2009. The system for addressing deficiencies arising out of the surveillance was discussed. The team was informed of setting up of Surveillance and Enforcement Division (SMED) and the Board for Aviation Safety (BFAS) in headquarters for monthly monitoring of identified Level I deficiencies and progress of other deficiencies. 87 enforcement actions have been taken against personnel and operators.

In addition to the surveillance programme, DGCA has put in a System of Quality Check of foreign flying training facilities used by Indian students for obtaining pilot licenses. DGCA officers have recently conducted an inspection of foreign flying institute in Philippines in consultation with their civil aviation authority. A system of recently introduced financial surveillance of airlines was also discussed based on the current economic slowdown and consequent pressures on the airlines. The revised Schedule VI of the Aircraft Rules 1937on Penalties was shared with the team where substantial increase in financial penalty for non-adherence to regulations has been addressed. DGCA Enforcement Policy and Procedures Manual was provided to the team which was issued on 20 May, 2009 and effective from 15 June 2009.

The Manual establishes and publicizes internal deadlines for taking action, appeal actions, and monitoring compliance with enforcement decisions throughout the regions, and implements an effective internal staff process to ensure timely action. The DGCA Officers at headquarters and in the regions have been trained on the manual. Stakeholders are aware that they are subject to enforcement, and the program constitutes an effective deterrent. FAA team was suitably impressed with the amount of work accomplished by DGCA India. FAA stated that complete action and correction of concerns raised by FAA was done in the available time space which is considered rare in the history of IASA. FAA also acknowledged the commitment and support of Ministry of Civil Aviation and Government of India.

Thousands of holidaymakers are currently facing the prospect of losing or having to re-book their summer holidays after another UK travel group ceased trading.

Last night aviation regulators worked hard to ensure that all 13,000 holidaymakers that were abroad when the travel company Flight Options and its main trading arm Kiss Travel collapsed at 5pm yesterday were able to return as planned.

This marks the third UK travel group to cease trading in just over a month, which has sparked concerns that other companies could follow before summer ends.

The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) has urged all Flight Options customers that were due to leave before 6pm tonight to travel to airports as planned. "Because the company has failed at the height of summer, the CAA is also putting in place arrangements to allow people to travel out on their holidays for the next 24 hours, to minimise confusion and protect passengers," it said in a statement.

All holidaymakers with later bookings have been advised to speak to their travel agents to discuss their options for alternative arrangements, and consult their travel insurance companies if appropriate cover was purchased. Most other customers who booked flights to the Mediterranean for next month and beyond should be able to receive refunds as protection is offered through the CAA's Air Travel Organisers' Licensing (Atol) protection scheme.

Flight Option's demise means more than 200,000 people have now been affected as a result of recent travel company collapses – the latest following Goldtrail Travel which failed in mid July and Sun4U last week. It is possible that some of those affected by last night's collapse could have been caught-up in Goldtrail's failure and were making their second attempt at a holiday as Kiss covered many of the same routes.

A number of underlying factors are likely to have contributed to the recent gloom in the travel industry, which include the closure of airspace due to the volcanic ashcloud, combined with months of uncertainty over British Airways flights from the cabin crew dispute and general uncertainty after the recession hit family finances hard.

Gary Ash, chief executive of Flight Options, told the travelweekly website: "I am devastated by this unfortunate turn of events. Over the past nine months we have been fighting in a difficult market.

"However, recent developments have made it impossible to continue the operation of the companies. He said the company's last annual results filed for the year ending 31 October 2009, revealed Kiss Flights had made an operating profit of £500,000.

Bob Atkinson, a travel expert with the website travelsupermarket.com said: "Unfortunately for some, Kiss Flights catered for many of the same routes as the recently collapsed Goldtrail. It may be the case the some unlucky holidaymakers will be affected all over again. At this stage it is unclear how many passengers will be protected by the Atol scheme and we are waiting for advice from the CAA.

"This is sadly yet another collapse in what could become a rash of company failures this autumn."

The CAA provided some reassurance after saying that most Flight Options customers will be covered by Atol as most of its business came from selling seats on planes. But it also expressed fears that many consumers hit by earlier collapses will lose out because the components of their holidays were sold separately which may not be seen as a 'package holiday'.

For example, only those who paid for flights, accommodation and hire car with a single credit card transaction will be protected under the Atol scheme. Those that paid for these components separately are not.

Flight Options also traded under several other names, including Africa Options, America Options, Canada Options, Caribbean Options, Dubai Options, Elgouna Options, Elgouna Villas and Apartments, Florida Options, Florida Owners Club, Golf Options, Holidayops.com, Orlando Villas Direct, Sportops.com, Travel Options Direct and Travelplus.

Advertising has lately become an indispensable way to promote new programs that are a product of stimulus dollars, including head start, weatherization and job training programs.

One advertising form that has taken off is bus advertising (including interior bus ads, which are posters displayed in front of bus riders). With its availability in many cities and low-income demographic viewership, community action agencies (CAAs) have adopted the bus ad medium as part of their marketing mix.

Blue Line Media provided the impetus for bus ads. As a nationwide outdoor advertising company, Blue Line Media periodically offers CAAs government and nonprofit discounted bus advertising rates as part of its pro bono efforts.

One of the earliest CAAs to take advantage of the bus sign advertising was the Albany Community Action Partnership, which promoted its Head Start program. Michelle Bowen, marketing director, confirmed the ads' success, stating "the bus ads made a quality impact in promoting Head Start to our residents."

CAAs also use bus displays to promote weatherization programs. The Community Action Partnership of San Bernardino County (CAPSBC), for example, advertised free programs to green the home. "The bus advertising proved to be a valuable tool in getting the word out about our weatherization programs to low income residents in our community," said Patricia L. Nickols, CAPSBC Chief Executive Officer.

State associations also use bus advertising to support their local CAAs. For example, the Massachusetts Association for Community Action recently placed ads that both promoted available programs and listed some of its local CAAs' phone numbers and locations. "Reaching the people we serve through advertising is difficult with a limited outreach budget," says Joe Diamond, the association's executive director. "Bus advertising is a great solution. If offers us a direct and effective way to bring low income and vulnerable people information about how they can take action and get help by contacting our agencies."

In the United Kingdom, one of the most important regulatory bodies in the aerospace industry is the Civilian Aviation Authority, or the CAA. The CAA was created in 1972 to act as a public organization to oversee all elements of British domestic aviation. The CAA was formally made the government’s aviation regulator with the Civil Aviation Act in 1982, which replaced the Department of Transport in this role. Aerospace professionals, from engineers to pilots, need to know about the CAA’s regulatory functions and jurisdiction in order to better understand the British aerospace industry.

Aerospace professionals should first understand the jurisdiction in which the CAA provides regulation and consultation. The Civilian Aviation Authority is the sole regulator for flights within the United Kingdom, from small charters to regularly scheduled airliners. However, the international nature of airline travel has required consultation and team work with European aviation organizations in order to facilitate safe and efficient travels. When international regulations come into effect, the CAA’s offices in London act as the local office for the European Aviation Safety Agency. CAA officials also act on regulatory boards of the EASA which determine regulations and enforcement policies.

The CAA has broad authority as the United Kingdom’s regulatory of aviation and aerospace activities, which should be understood by aerospace professionals. The function of the CAA that professionals will become most familiar with is the licensing of aviation and aerospace professionals. Flight crew, engineering, and air traffic controller licensing all run through the CAA and regular license upgrades and renewals are required. In a similar vein, the CAA monitors medical regulations and facilitates physicals for aviation personnel that are involved in regular flights.

Aerospace professionals may become intimately familiar with the professional licensing aspects of the CAA but there are a number of other functions that are equally important. The CAA regulates the United Kingdom register of aircraft, which is necessary to maintain an accurate record of all planes in the region. As well, the CAA regulates the licensing of airplanes and other aircraft in the United Kingdom. The CAA not only regulates individual aircrafts and professionals but leads the charge against unfair aerospace business practices. The CAA’s regulatory function allows it to manage public aviation organizations while regulating against private monopolies. In all, the CAA’s jurisdictional and regulatory functions allow it to deal with safety and economic issues in the UK’s aerospace industry. Aerospace professionals who understand the nuances of the CAA will function better in their jobs.

As the effects of the credit crunch are felt globally and increasing numbers of vulnerable businesses falling by the way side, it appears that against the odds, the travel industry looks set to weather the storm and come out the other side intact if not unscathed.

However it is not going to be all plain sailing, the CAA is taking a decidedly hard line in their bid to ensure there won’t be a repeat of last year’s XL Leisure debacle that left over 85,000 tourists stranded and cost the CAA millions of pounds to repatriate the stranded travellers. Therefore any travel company found to be underperforming will find them self under the Civil Aviations Authority’s microscope in a bid to either weed out or strengthen the weaker players in the industry before the busy summer season.

In order for tour operators to be awarded an ATOL licence they must measure up to the stringent standards specified by the CAA. It’s vital for agents to retain their ATOL (Air Travel Organisers’ Licencing Scheme) affiliation as it is a major selling point that provides peace of mind for almost thirty-million Britons who take a package holiday each year, ensuring that they will either receive a refund or be brought home should their travel company run into trouble.

The credit crunch has brought the matter of reliability to the forefront and it has become apparent that the CAA would rather see the less able companies cease trading now, rather than face another huge bill for bringing home British holiday makers stranded abroad. They are now considering asking some tour operators to provide a larger bond this year and if they are unable to meet the criteria, they will be forced to stop selling flights.

A spokesman for the CAA stated that; “Our responsibility is to passengers and to ensure companies meet the criteria for the ATOL licence. If they do not, that is a matter for them”.

The upshot is that the CAA is playing hard ball and is determined to keep a reign on spending. The overall cost of the XL operation not only grossly exceeded XL’s £42 million bond but it could possibly exceed the Air Travel Trust Fund’s £60 million pounds over draft, which is run by the industry as a passenger compensation scheme.

Following last year's ruling in favour of Travel Republic at Westminster Magistrates Court, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) recently launched another criminal prosecution against the online travel agent. In 2009, it was held that Travel Republic had not breached the Civil Aviation (Air Travel Organisers' Licensing) Regulations 1995, which pertain to package holidays among other aspects of the travel industry. Subsequently, the CAA brought further legal action against Travel Republic but this time chose to argue the issue from a more pointed angle by asking: was Travel Republic in breach of its legal duty to hold an ATOL (Air Travel Organisers' Licence)?

The ATOL was drawn up with the intention of providing greater protection to consumers who opt for package holidays. In the event of a travel operator permanently ceasing its business operations for one reason or another, the ATOL enables the CAA to ensure that affected customers do not lose their money and that, if they happen to be abroad at the time the travel operator goes out of business, any stranded customers are allowed to finish their holidays in the knowledge that return flights have been organised for them.

Travel operators that hold an ATOL are required to enter into a financial guarantee scheme that is managed by the Air Travel Trust (ATT), which supplies the monetary funds to customers should a travel operator go out of business. Clearly, the question as to whether or not an online travel agent holds an ATOL is critical in determining its liability where problems arise. As such, the CAA was disappointed to hear the judgement reached by Nicholas Evans DJ in the latest case involving CAA and Travel Republic.

Crucially, he ruled that Travel Republic did not act as a tour operator and did not, therefore, require an ATOL. The decision meant that Travel Republic had not committed a criminal offence, as the company merely acted in the role of travel agent and did not assemble package holidays. Although the decision may surprise some customers who purchase package holidays through online travel agents, the reality is such that contract formation is nowhere near as simple as the purchase itself; in fact, it is often the case that several separate contracts are involved: one for the flight; one for the accommodation; and others for various components of the holiday.

The decision reached in CAA v Travel Republic will have a profound impact on holidaymakers, who are advised to keep accurate records of every step involved in the booking process; indeed, of particular interest in the present case were the call transcripts and recorded telephone conversations relating to the booking in question. When using the services of online travel agents, it is essential that customers read the small print carefully and retain electronic and printed copies of all agreements signed. The question as to whether a holidaymaker has booked a 'package holiday' or some other form is not always easily resolved, yet the distinction is crucial in determining whether a claim can be brought in the English courts or abroad. The travel law team at Blake Lapthorn will quickly identify what protection is available in a given case and what steps can be taken to resolve any dispute.